Honoring Fair Play Awards: Celebrating ethical conduct sets positive examples.
Maintaining integrity ensures that football remains respected globally.
The Role of Technology & Analytics Today
In modern football betting:
- Data Analytics Tools: Leveraging advanced analytics provides deeper insights into player performances.
Tech advancements allow bettors access unprecedented data depth aiding decision-making processes.
Economic Implications & Sponsorships
The economic aspect also plays a vital role:
- Sponsorship Deals: Sponsorships bring financial stability but also pressure teams toward performance targets.
Betting influences not only fans but also sponsors looking for exposure through popular events.
Cultural Significance & Fan Engagement
Football holds deep cultural significance:
- Fan Culture Across Regions: Different regions exhibit unique fan cultures influencing match atmospheres significantly.
Fans worldwide connect emotionally through football’s universal appeal.
Predictive Models & Statistical Approaches
To refine predictions:
- Evaluation Metrics Used by Analysts: Analyzing metrics like possession percentages helps forecast outcomes accurately.
Predictive modeling combines historical data with real-time analytics offering robust forecasts.
Social Media Influence & Real-Time Updates
Social media platforms play an increasingly significant role:
- User-Generated Content Impacting Public Perception: Viral posts can sway opinions rapidly affecting bettors' choices.
Leveraging social media allows instant updates keeping audiences engaged continuously.
Risks & Responsible Betting Practices
To ensure responsible gambling:
- Awareness Campaigns Encouraged by Betting Platforms: Campaigns promote safe gambling habits among users.
Maintaining balance between enjoyment and caution protects bettors from potential pitfalls.
Moving Forward - Future Prospects Post-Final Stage
A look ahead post-tournament:
- <**Long-Term Strategies Employed by Teams:** Understanding future plans aids long-term predictions
<|repo_name|>arindamghosh1008/llmsherpa<|file_sep|>/backend/tests/test_utils.py
import pytest
from fastapi.testclient import TestClient
from backend.app import app
@pytest.fixture()
def client():
return TestClient(app)
def test_get_random_word(client):
response = client.get("/utils/random_word")
assert response.status_code == 200
assert isinstance(response.json(), str)
assert len(response.json()) > 0
def test_get_random_words(client):
response = client.get("/utils/random_words?count=5")
assert response.status_code == 200
assert isinstance(response.json(), list)
assert len(response.json()) == 5
def test_get_random_words_invalid_count(client):
response = client.get("/utils/random_words?count=-1")
assert response.status_code == 400
def test_get_random_sentence(client):
response = client.get("/utils/random_sentence")
assert response.status_code == 200
assert isinstance(response.json(), str)
assert len(response.json()) > 0
def test_get_random_sentences(client):
response = client.get("/utils/random_sentences?count=3")
assert response.status_code == 200
assert isinstance(response.json(), list)
assert len(response.json()) == 3
def test_get_random_sentences_invalid_count(client):
response = client.get("/utils/random_sentences?count=-1")
assert response.status_code == 400
# def test_generate_markdown_text(client):
# text = "This is a sample text."
# markdown_text = f"markdownn{text}n"
# response = client.post("/generate/markdown", json={"text": text})
# assert response.status_code == 200
# assert response.json() == {"markdown_text": markdown_text}
# def test_generate_html_text(client):
# text = "This is a sample text."
# html_text = f"{text}
"
# response = client.post("/generate/html", json={"text": text})
# assert response.status_code == 200
# assert response.json() == {"html_text": html_text}
if __name__ == "__main__":
pytest.main()
<|file_sep:::{post}2021-06-30 {label{sec:Spectra}}
:::
:::{note}
This post was originally published [here](https://www.quantstart.com/articles/Exploring-the-Spectral-Domain-of-Financial-Markets).
:::
## Introduction
The mathematical study known as *spectral theory* explores ways that linear operators may be understood via decomposition into simpler components.
In particular,
it examines how functions may be expressed as sums over eigenfunctions.
These ideas find applications throughout mathematics,
and even more so throughout physics.
For example,
the spectral theory associated with differential operators finds use throughout quantum mechanics,
as does spectral theory associated with discrete matrices.
A natural question arises:
what happens when we apply spectral theory techniques outside physics?
One such application area involves financial markets.
In particular,
financial markets may be modeled using linear operators whose spectra may be analyzed using spectral theory techniques.
In this article,
we explore ways that spectral theory may be applied within financial markets,
with particular emphasis placed upon understanding stock market fluctuations.
We begin our exploration by first introducing basic definitions related to linear operators;
we then examine several examples involving stock price movements;
finally,
we end our exploration by discussing possible future directions regarding applying spectral theory within financial markets.
## Preliminaries
We begin our discussion by defining some basic terminology related to linear operators acting upon vector spaces.
We begin by introducing some notation which shall prove useful throughout our discussion.
Let $V$ denote any finite-dimensional complex vector space equipped with an inner product $langle cdot , cdot rangle : V times V rightarrow mathbb{C}$.
Let $lVert v rVert := sqrt{langle v , v rangle}$ denote the norm induced upon $V$ via $langle cdot , cdot rangle$.
Now let $L : V rightarrow V$ denote any linear operator acting upon $V$;
for convenience we shall assume that $L$ is invertible (this assumption does not cause any loss in generality).
For any nonzero $vin V$, define its *eigenvalue* $lambda_v$ via $(L-lambda_v I)v=0$, where $I : Vrightarrow V$ denotes identity operator acting upon $V$.
If there exists any nonzero vector satisfying $(L-lambda I)v=0$, then we say that $lambda$ is an *eigenvalue* associated with $L$.
A vector satisfying $(L-lambda I)v=0$ is called an *eigenvector* associated with eigenvalue $lambda$.
We now introduce two special classes associated with linear operators:
those which are self-adjoint (also known as Hermitian) operators,
and those which are unitary operators.
Recall that any inner product space comes equipped naturally with its *adjoint map*, denoted ${}^*$;
this map sends vectors from domain space into codomain space according to $$langle Lv , wrangle=langle v , L^*wrangle$$ whenever both sides are defined ($v,win V$, where $L : Urightarrow V$, where $U,V$ denote finite-dimensional complex vector spaces).
An operator $L : Urightarrow U$ acting upon finite-dimensional complex inner product space $U$ is said to be **self-adjoint** if it satisfies $$Lv=L^*v$$ whenever both sides are defined ($vin U$).
An operator $L : Urightarrow U$ acting upon finite-dimensional complex inner product space $U$ is said to be **unitary** if it satisfies $$Lv=L^{-1}v$$ whenever both sides are defined ($vin U$, where we assume without loss of generality that all vectors satisfy $lVert vrVert=1$).
To illustrate these definitions consider two examples involving matrices operating upon Euclidean spaces:
let $$M_1:=begin{pmatrix}1&0\0&iend{pmatrix}$$ act upon $mathbb{C}^2$
and let $$M_2:=frac{1}{sqrt{6}}begin{pmatrix}i&i&i\-i&i&i\-i&-i&iend{pmatrix}$$ act upon $mathbb{C}^3$
(note here that both matrices are invertible).
It turns out that matrix multiplication satisfies $(AB)^*=B^*A^*$ whenever both sides are defined;
as such we find immediately that $$M_1^*=begin{pmatrix}1&0\0&-iend{pmatrix}, M_1^{-1}=begin{pmatrix}1&0\0&-iend{pmatrix}, M_2^*=frac{1}{sqrt{6}}begin{pmatrix}-i&-i&-i\ i& i& i \ i & i & -i end{pmatrix}, M_2^{-1}=M_2.$$
Since we have $$M_1=M_1^*neq M_1^{-1}=M_1^*,$$ matrix $M_1:M_{{}_{{}_{{}_{{}_{_}}}}}mathbb{C}^{{}_{{}_{{}_{{}_{_}}}}}{}_{_}mathbb{C}^{_}{_}{_}{_}{_}{_}{_}{_}{_}{_}to{}_{_}mathbb{mathbb{mathbb{mathbb{mathbb{mathbb{mathbb{mathbb{mathbb{mathbb{mathbb{square}}}}}}}}}}}$$_{$$_{$$_{$$_{$$_{$$_{$$_{$$_}{$$_}{$$_}{$${}_{${}_{${}_{${}_{${}_{${}_{${}_{${}_{${}_${}$}${}$}${}$}${}$${}_{${}${}${}${}$is self-adjoint but not unitary while matrix $$M_{{}_{{}_{{}_{{}_{_}}}}}{}_{{{}}}{}_{_}to{}_{_}square{}_{$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ }is unitary but not self adjoint.] Note here that self adjointness implies diagonalizability (see [here](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_adjoint_operator)) while unitarity implies orthogonality (see [here](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_matrix)).
These two properties will turn out important later when we discuss stock price movements.
Next we discuss some important results regarding eigenvectors associated with self adjoint operators.
Firstly note here that if eigenvectors exist at all then they must necessarily exist along conjugate pairs;
that is, if there exists any eigenvector corresponding eigenvalue $lambda$, then there must also exist another eigenvector corresponding eigenvalue $bar{lambda}$;
this follows directly from taking adjoints since taking adjoints corresponds exactly exchanging rows/columns for columns/rows respectively while simultaneously taking complex conjugates entrywise (see [here](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_transpose)).
Secondly note here that every self adjoint operator admits at least one eigenvector since every polynomial equation admits at least one root;
as such every self adjoint operator admits at least one eigenvalue (by definition).
Thirdly note here that eigenvectors corresponding distinct eigenvalues must necessarily be orthogonal;
this follows directly from considering $(L-lambda_iI)v_i=(L-lambda_jI)v_j=0$
where $v_i,v_j,L,lambda_i,lambda_j,$ denote arbitrary eigenvectors/eigenvalues/operator ($v_i,v_j,L,neq0)$;
upon rearranging terms we find immediately $(L-lambda_iv_i)=(L-lambda_jv_j)$;
taking dot products yields immediately $(L-lambda_iv_i)cdot(L-lambda_jv_j)=0$
which simplifies readily into $langle L(v_i-v_j), L(v_i-v_j)rangle=(|lambda_i|^+lVert v_i-v_jrVert)^+$;
since left hand side above equals zero while right hand side above equals strictly positive number unless equality holds trivially ($v_i=v_j)$,
it follows immediately $(|lambda_i|^+lVert v_i-vjrVert)^+=0$
and hence equality holds trivially ($v_i=vj)$;
thus eigenvectors corresponding distinct eigenvalues must necessarily be orthogonal!
Finally we conclude our preliminary discussion by discussing two important results regarding diagonalizability/spectral decomposability:
firstly note here every invertible self adjoint operator admits complete set basis consisting entirely outof its own eigenvectors;
this follows directly from applying Gram-Schmidt process repeatedly until obtaining complete set basis consisting entirely outof orthogonal vectors since every invertible self adjoint operator admits complete set basis consisting entirely outof orthogonal vectors due top aforementioned facts about orthogonality/conjugacy/unitarity/self adjoiness etc.; see [here](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_adjoint_operator)for more details/discussion/examples etc.;
secondly note here every invertible unitary operator admits complete set basis consisting entirely outof its own eigenvectors too!
This follows directly from applying Gram-Schmidt process repeatedly until obtaining complete set basis consisting entirely outof orthogonal vectors since every invertible unitary operator admits complete set basis consisting entirely outof orthogonal vectors due top aforementioned facts about orthogonality/conjugacy/unitarity/self adjoiness etc.; see [here](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_matrix)for more details/discussion/examples etc..
## Applications To Stock Market Fluctuations
We now apply aforementioned concepts/results discussed previously within context financial markets focusing particularly upon stock market fluctuations!
To do so first consider arbitrary stock price time series represented mathematically via function denoted $$P(t):[t_{min},t_{max}]{}to{}R+.$$ Next recall aforementioned notions related linear operators introduced earlier namely those involving invertibility/self adjoiness/unitarity/etc.;
these notions allow us easily construct various types linear transformations operating upon given time series represented mathematically via function denoted $$P(t):[t_{min},t_{max}]{}to{}R+.$$ For example consider following simple transformation operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathematically via function denoted $$P(t):[t_{min},t_{max}]{}to{}R+:quad P'(t):=alpha P(t)+c,$$
where constants $alpha,c,$ denote arbitrary scalars representing scaling factor/additive constant respectively!
Clearly transformation above preserves invertibility/self adjoiness/unitarity/etc.,
since scaling factor/additive constant preserve same properties under composition!
Thus transformation above represents valid example type transformation operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathematically via function denoted $$P(t):[t_{min},t_{max}]{}to{}R+.$$
Now consider following slightly more complicated transformation operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathematically via function denoted $$P(t):[t_{min},t_{max}]{}to{}R+:P''(t):=int_a^{bt+c}alpha P(s)+ds,$$
where constants $alpha,b,c,a,$ denote arbitrary scalars representing scaling factor/integration limits/constants respectively!
Clearly transformation above preserves invertibility/self adjoiness/unitarity/etc.,
since integration limits/constants preserve same properties under composition!
Thus transformation above represents valid example type transformation operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathematically via function denoted $$P(t):[t_{min},t_{max}]{}to{}R+.$$
Finally consider following most complicated transformation operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathematically via function denoted $$P(t):[t_{min},t_{max}]{}to{}R+:P'''(t):=int_a^{bt+c}int_d^{et+f}alpha P(s)+dsdt,$$
where constants $alpha,b,c,a,d,e,f,$ denote arbitrary scalars representing scaling factor/integration limits/constants respectively!
Clearly transformation above preserves invertibility/self adjoiness/unitarity/etc.,
since integration limits/constants preserve same properties under composition!
Thus transformation above represents valid example type transformation operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathemally via function denoted $$P(t):[t_{min},t_{max}]{}to{}R+.$$
Having constructed three different types transformations operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathemally via function denoted $$P(t):[t_min,t_max] {}to {}R+,$$
we now proceed discussing ways apply aforementioned concepts/results discussed previously within context financial markets focusing particularly upon stock market fluctuations!
### Spectral Decomposition Of Stock Price Time Series
To begin our discussion first recall aforementioned notion related linear operators introduced earlier namely those involving diagonalizability/spectral decomposability/etc.;
these notions allow us easily construct various types spectral decompositions operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathemally via function denoted $$P(t):[T_min,T_max] {}to {}R+.$$ For example consider following simple decomposition operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathemally via function denoted $$P(t):[T_min,T_max] {}to {}R+:$$
$$P'(T)=c+sum_k^n c_k e^{ikT},$$ where constants $c_k,k,n,c,$denote arbitrary scalars representing coefficients/frequencies/count/base frequency respectively!
Clearly decomposition above preserves diagonalizability/spectral decomposability/etc.,
since coefficients/frequencies/count/base frequency preserve same properties under composition!
Thus decomposition above represents valid example type decomposition operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathemally via function denoted $$P(T):[T_min,T_max] {}to {}R+.$$
Now consider following slightly more complicated decomposition operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathemally via function denoted $$P(T):[T_min,T_max] {}to {}R+:$$
$$P''(T)=c+sum_k^n c_k e^{ik(T-T_c)}e^{-a(T-T_c)^k},$$ where constants$c_k,k,n,c,a,T_c,$denote arbitrary scalars representing coefficients/frequencies/count/base frequency/amplitude/critical point respectively!
Clearly decomposition above preserves diagonalizability/spectral decomposability/etc.,
since coefficients/frequencies/count/base frequency/amplitude/critical point preserve same properties under composition!
Thus decomposition above represents valid example type decomposition operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathemally via function denoted $$P(T):[T_min,T_max] {}to {}R+.$$
Finally consider following most complicated decomposition operating arbitrarily chosen time series represented mathemally via function denoted $$P(T):[T_min,T_max] {}to {}R+:$$
$$P'''(T)=c+sum_k^n c_ke^{ik(T-T_c)}e^{-a(T-T_c)^k}(cos(b(T-T_c))+isin(b(T-T_c))),$$ where constants$c_k,k,n,c,a,b,T_c,$denote arbitrary scalars representing coefficients/frequencies/count/base frequency/amplitude/wave number/critical point respectively!
Clearly decomposition above preserves diagonalizability/spectral decomposability/etc.,
since coefficients/frequencies/count/base frequency/amplitude/wave number/critical point preserve same properties under composition!
Thus decomposition above represents valid example type decomposition operating arbitrarily choosen timseries representated matheamatically viafunctiondenotated$$$$(T)[T_min,T_max]mapstoR+.
Having constructed three different types decompositions operatng arbritrary choosen timseries representated matheamatically viafunctiondenotated$$$$(T)[T_min,T_max]mapstoR+,
we now proceed discussing ways apply aforementioned concepts/results discussed previously within context financial markets focusing particularly upponstockmarketfluctuations!
### Application To Stock Market Volatility Analysis
To begin our discussion first recall aforementioned notion related linearoperators introduced earlier namely those involving variance/covariance/etc.;
these notions allow us easily construct various types volatility analyses operatng arbritrary choosen timseries representated matheamatically viafunctiondenotated$$$$(T)[T_min,T_max]mapstoR+.
For example consider following simple volatility analysis operatng arbritrary choosen timseries representated matheamatically viafunctiondenotated$$$$(T)[T_min,T_max]mapstoR+:
compute variance/variance ratio/variance spectrum/variance spectrum ratio/variance spectrum density/variance spectrum density ratio/variance spectrum density spectrum/variance spectrum density spectrum ratio/variance spectrum density spectrum density/variance spectrum density spectrumspectrumdensitydensityratioetc.,
where constants$c_k,k,n,c,a,b,T_c,$denote arbitrary scalars representing coefficients/frequencies/count/base frequency/amplitude/wave number/critical point/respective ratios/densities/ratio densities/ratio densities densities/respective ratios etc.respectively! Clearlyanalysisabovepreservesvariancecovarianceetc.,
sincecoefficientsfrequenciescountbasefrequencyamplitudewavenumbercriticalpointrespective ratiosdensitiesratio densitiesratio densities densitiesrespectiveratiosetc.preservesamepropertiesundercomposition! Thusanalysisaboverepresentsvaildexampletypeanalysisonarbitrarystockpricetimseriesrepresentatedmatheamaticallyviaplicationalfunctiondenotated$$$$(T)[T_min,T_max]mapstoR+.
Nowconsiderfollowingslightlymorecomplicatedvolatilityanalysisoperatngarbitrarystockpricetimseriesrepresentatedmatheamaticallyviaplicationalfunctiondenotated$$$$(T)[T_min,T_max]mapstoR+:
compute variance/volatility/volatility spectrum/volatility spectrumspectrumdensitydensityratioetc.,
whereconstants$c_k,k,n,c,a,b,T_c,D,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,W,X,Y,Z,respectively! Clearlyanalysisabovepreservesvariancecovarianceetc.,
sincecoefficientsfrequenciescountbasefrequencyamplitudewavenumbercriticalpointrespective ratiosdensitiesratio densitiesratio densities densitiesrespectiveratiosetc.preservesamepropertiesundercomposition! Thusanalysisaboverepresentsvaildexampletypeanalysisonarbitrarystockpricetimseriesrepresentatedmatheamaticallyviaplicationalfunctiondenotated$$$$(T)[T_min,T_max]mapstoR+.
Finallyconsiderfollowingmostcomplicatedvolatilityanalysisoperatngarbitrarystockpricetimseriesrepresentatedmatheamaticallyviaplicationalfunctiondenotated$$$$(T)[T_min,T_max]mapstoR+:
computevarianceriskratioriskriskratioriskriskratioriskriskratioriskriskratioriskriskratioriskriskratioriskriskratioriskriskratioriskriskratioriskriskratioetc.,
whereconstants$c_k,k,n,c,a,b,T_c,respectively! Clearlyanalysisabovepreservesvarianceriskcovarianceriskspectrumspectrumdensitydensityratioetc.,
sincecoefficientsfrequenciescountbasefrequencyamplitudewavenumbercriticalpointrespective ratiosdensitiesratio densitiesratio densities densitiesrespectiveratiosetc.preservesamepropertiesundercomposition! Thusanalysisaboverepresentsvaildexampletypeanalysisonarbitrarystockpricetimseriesrepresentatedmatheamaticallyviaplicationalfunctiondenotated$$$$(<|repo_name|>Glowmano/DiscordBot<|file_sep|>/src/main/java/com/glowmano/bots/utils/BotUtils.java
package com.glowmano.bots.utils;
import com.glowmano.bots.config.BotConfig;
import java.io.BufferedReader;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.InputStreamReader;
public class BotUtils {
public static boolean checkIfFileExists(String fileName) {
try {
BufferedReader reader =
new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(BotConfig.class.getResourceAsStream(fileName)));
reader.close();
}catch(IOException e){
return false;
}
return true;
}
}
<|repo_name|>Glowmano/DiscordBot<|file_sep